Long noun phrases are far more frequent in formal, academic texts and as a result, verb phrases tend to far less frequent. Although Passive Voice is discouraged in some fields, it is far more frequent in formal writing than informal writing or speech. As academic writing tries to be impersonal and scientific, the use of personal pronouns such as I, me, you, we and our is generally discouraged, although ideas are changing about this. Furthermore, some writing tasks (e.g., reflective writing) require the use of these pronouns. Unfortunately, while the use of idioms is generally discouraged in academic writing, some idioms are accepted, making this confusing. The best rule is to avoid any idioms. Finally, shorter conjunctions such as so, but, because & and should not be used to start sentences (although we do this often in spoken English). Instead, use Therefore, However, As & In addition. Again, ideas about this are changing, so you will see their use in academic writing, but it is best to avoid them. Phrasal Verbs used in common speech should generally be avoided, especially if there is a formal one-word equivalent. Instead of go up, get better, look up & find out, use increase, improve, investigate & discover. However, there are some Phrasal Verbs which are accepted in academic writing. Account for, carry out & point out are examples of verbs frequently used in formal writing. Contractions (e.g., it’s, won’t, can’t, weren’t & shouldn’t) should never be used in formal writing.